⏱ 4 min read
Nepal’s history and borders were shaped by treaties with Tibet, China, British India and independent India. Lok Sewa frequently asks which treaty ended which war, which treaty recognised Nepal’s independence, and the main water agreements with India. This note lists the major treaties in time order with their key points.
1. Treaties of the early Shah and Rana period
| Treaty | Year | With | Key points |
|---|---|---|---|
| Treaty of Kerung | 1846 BS (1789) | Tibet | Ended the first Nepal–Tibet war; Tibet agreed to pay yearly tribute |
| Treaty of Betrawati | 1849 BS (1792) | China (Qing) | Ended the Nepal–China war; Nepal to send a mission to China every five years |
| Treaty of Sugauli | 1872 BS (1815/16) | British East India Company | Ended the Anglo-Nepal war; Nepal lost about one-third of its land; Mechi and Mahakali became borders |
| Treaty of Thapathali | 1913 BS (1856) | Tibet | Ended the Nepal–Tibet war of Jung Bahadur’s time; trade rights for Nepalis in Tibet |
2. 1923 Nepal–Britain Treaty of Friendship
- Signed on 21 December 1923 (1980 BS) during the rule of Rana Prime Minister Chandra Shumsher.
- Britain formally recognised Nepal as a fully independent and sovereign country.
- It replaced the Sugauli arrangement of a British Resident with a British envoy.
3. Treaties with India
| Treaty / agreement | Year | Key points |
|---|---|---|
| Treaty of Peace and Friendship | 31 July 1950 (2007 BS) | Signed by Rana PM Mohan Shumsher and Indian ambassador C. P. N. Singh; open border and equal treatment of citizens; still debated in Nepal |
| Koshi Agreement | 1954 (2011 BS) | Koshi barrage at Bhimnagar for flood control and irrigation, mainly benefiting India |
| Gandak Agreement | 1959 (2016 BS) | Gandak barrage at Valmikinagar for irrigation and power |
| Mahakali Treaty | 12 February 1996 (2052 BS) | Integrated development of the Mahakali river, including the Pancheshwar project; ratified by a two-thirds majority of Parliament |
| Trade and transit treaties | Since 1950; renewed over time | Govern trade and Nepal’s transit to the sea through India |
4. Treaties with China
- Nepal–China Treaty of Peace and Friendship: 1960.
- Nepal–China Boundary Treaty: 1961, under King Mahendra; it settled the northern border, with the boundary line passing over the summit of Sagarmatha.
- Recent agreements include the Transit and Transport Agreement (2016), allowing Nepal to use Chinese ports, and the Belt and Road framework (2017).
5. Nepal and the United Nations
- Nepal joined the United Nations on 14 December 1955.
- Nepal is a founding member of SAARC (1985), whose secretariat is in Kathmandu, and a member of BIMSTEC.
6. Treaties at a glance
| Treaty or agreement | Year | With | Main point |
|---|---|---|---|
| Treaty of Sugauli | 1816 | British East India Company | Ended the Anglo-Nepal war; Nepal lost large territories |
| Treaty of Thapathali | 1856 | Tibet | Ended the Nepal–Tibet war; trade rights for Nepal |
| Nepal–Britain Treaty of Friendship | 1923 | Britain | Recognised Nepal’s independence |
| Treaty of Peace and Friendship | 1950 | India | Open border, equal treatment of citizens |
| Kosi Agreement | 1954 (revised 1966) | India | Kosi barrage and irrigation |
| Gandak Agreement | 1959 | India | Gandak barrage and irrigation |
| Boundary Treaty | 1961 | China | Fixed the Nepal–China border |
| Mahakali Treaty | 1996 | India | Integrated development of the Mahakali river, including Pancheshwar |
7. Issues still discussed today
- Calls to review the 1950 Treaty, which many in Nepal see as unequal.
- The Kalapani–Lipulekh–Limpiyadhura border dispute with India; Nepal issued its new map in 2077 BS.
- Slow progress on the Pancheshwar project under the Mahakali Treaty.
- Nepal–China connectivity under the Transit and Transport Agreement (2016).
8. How this topic is asked in the exam
Objective items ask the year of each treaty and the country it was signed with. Subjective questions ask about the importance of the 1950 Treaty or water-resource agreements with India. Give background, main provisions, criticisms and the way forward.
📌 Key points to remember
- Kerung (1789) ended the first Nepal–Tibet war; Betrawati (1792) ended the Nepal–China war.
- Sugauli (1815/16) ended the Anglo-Nepal war; Nepal lost one-third of its land.
- Thapathali (1856) ended Jung Bahadur’s Tibet war.
- 1923 treaty with Britain recognised Nepal’s full independence (Chandra Shumsher).
- 1950 Peace and Friendship Treaty with India: Mohan Shumsher and C. P. N. Singh.
- Koshi Agreement 1954; Gandak Agreement 1959; Mahakali Treaty 1996 (Pancheshwar).
- Nepal–China Peace Treaty 1960; Boundary Treaty 1961 (border over Everest summit).
- Nepal joined the UN on 14 December 1955.
📝 Quiz
Test yourself: Major Treaties of Nepal
50 questions on Treaties of the early Shah and Rana period, Treaties with India and Nepal and the United Nations. Each attempt picks 25 at random.
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