Ancient and Medieval Nepal: Gopal, Kirat, Licchavi and Malla Periods

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History questions in Lok Sewa often go back before the unification of Nepal: who was the first Kirat king, which inscription is the oldest dated one, who started Nepal Sambat, and how the Kathmandu Valley was divided among the Mallas. This note covers the Gopal, Mahishpal, Kirat, Licchavi and Malla periods in a simple, exam-ready form, with the kings, inscriptions and monuments that are asked most often.

1. Sources and periods of early Nepalese history

Our knowledge of early Nepal comes from vamshavalis (chronicles), inscriptions (shilalekh), coins, temples and the accounts of foreign travellers. The most important chronicle is the Gopalraj Vamshavali. Early history is usually divided as follows:

2. Gopal and Mahishpal (Abhir) dynasties

According to the chronicles, the Gopals (cow herders) were the first rulers of the Kathmandu Valley. Bhuktaman is named as the first Gopal king, and Matatirtha is described as their centre. They were followed by the Mahishpal or Abhir dynasty (buffalo herders). The Mahishpals were later defeated by the Kirats. These early periods are known only from chronicles, not from inscriptions.

3. The Kirat period

• Yalambar was the first Kirat king. Tradition links him with the Mahabharata war.
• The chronicles list about 32 Kirat kings who ruled the valley for a very long time.
• Jitedasti, a Kirat king, is said to have ruled when Gautam Buddha visited the valley.
• The Kirats were followed by the Licchavis, who defeated the last Kirat ruler.

4. The Licchavi period

The Licchavi period is the first historical period of Nepal, because many dated inscriptions in Sanskrit survive from it. The Licchavis are believed to have come from Vaishali in India.

• Manadev I is the first Licchavi king whose reign is well recorded in his own dated inscriptions. His Changu Narayan pillar inscription (464 AD) is the oldest dated inscription of the Licchavi period and the first that gives a detailed historical account. (An older dated inscription, on the statue of Jayavarma found at Maligaun, Kathmandu, is dated Samvat 107, about 185 AD.) Coins called Manank are linked with him.
• Amshuverma, a Thakuri who first served as a Licchavi official (Mahasamanta), became king. He built the Kailashkut Bhawan palace and is said to have written a grammar book, Shabdavidya. The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang wrote about him.
• His daughter (according to tradition), Bhrikuti, married the Tibetan king Songtsen Gampo and helped spread Buddhism in Tibet.
• Narendradev and Jayadev II were later Licchavi kings; Jayadev II left an important inscription at Pashupati.
• The Licchavi period is often called the golden age of ancient Nepalese art and culture.

Licchavi rulers ran the state through officials and local bodies, and their inscriptions record land grants, taxes and the building of temples and water spouts. Both Hinduism and Buddhism flourished side by side. The Changu Narayan inscription of Manadev I also tells how he persuaded his widowed mother, Rajyavati, not to commit sati and then led a military campaign to strengthen his kingdom. Sanskrit was the language of the court and of the inscriptions.

5. The transitional period and Nepal Sambat

After the Licchavis came a period with few records, sometimes called the transitional or dark period. In this period, Nepal Sambat began in 879 AD during the reign of Raghavdev. Tradition says that Shankhadhar Sakhwa, a merchant of Kantipur, paid off the debts of the people, and the new era was started in his honour. Nepal Sambat is the national era of Nepal, and Shankhadhar Sakhwa has been declared a national hero.

6. The early Malla period

The Malla period is also remembered for the artist Araniko, who went to Tibet in 1260 with a team of Nepali craftsmen and later to China, where he built the White Stupa in Beijing. His work spread the pagoda style and Nepali metal art abroad. Trade between Tibet and India through the Kathmandu Valley made the Malla kingdoms rich.

7. Division of the valley and the later Malla kings

After Yaksha Malla died in 1482, the valley was divided among his sons: Ratna Malla set up the kingdom of Kantipur (Kathmandu), Raya Malla ruled Bhaktapur, and Ran Malla ruled Banepa. Patan (Lalitpur) later became a separate kingdom under Siddhi Narasingh Malla (from about 1620).

8. Malla culture and the end of the Malla rule

• The Mallas were great builders: the three Durbar Squares of Kathmandu, Patan and Bhaktapur were developed mainly in this period.
• Newar art, pagoda temples, metal work, music, drama and festivals such as Indra Jatra and the chariot festivals flourished.
• Nepal Bhasa (Newari) and Sanskrit were used in literature and inscriptions.
• Rivalry among the three kingdoms weakened them. Prithvi Narayan Shah of Gorkha conquered Kantipur in 1768 during Indra Jatra, then Patan in 1768 and Bhaktapur in 1769, ending Malla rule.